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84 meaning out of stressor), (c) the commonality of the occurrence (with PTG being less common

85 than SRG), and (d) the duration of change (PTG is assumed to involve an enduring and

86 permanent change whereas SRG may involve a regression back to former thoughts, beliefs, and

87 behaviors). Despite these differences, three areas of consensus in respect of growth following

88 adversity have emerged: relationships are enhanced, individuals develop an altered view of

89 themselves, and individuals re-evaluate and change their life philosophy (Joseph, Murphy, &

90 Regel, 2012).

91 From a theoretical perspective (cf. Joseph &

Linley, 2006), a number of approaches have

92 been developed, including a functional descriptive model (FDM) of posttraumatic growth

93 (Calhoun, Cann, &

Tedeschi, 2010;

Calhoun &

Tedeschi, 1998;

Tedeschi &

Calhoun, 1995,

94 Tedeschi &

Calhoun, 2004) and an organismic valuing theory (OVT) of growth through adversity

95 (Joseph &

Linley, 2005). These theories posit that growth arises out of a person'

s struggle to deal

96 with the shattered self (cf. Janoff-Bulman, 1992) that occurs as a result of a traumatic experience.

97 According to the theories, this involves interaction between a variety of person and situational

98 variables, central to which is an individual'

s cognitive processing. The main differences between

99 the theories are the primacy of individual'

s intrinsic motives in OVT (Joseph &

Linley, 2005) and

100 the significant role of cultural influences in the FDM (Calhoun et al., 2010).

101 The most recent theoretical development in this area is Joseph et al.'

s (2012) proposal of

102 an affective-cognitive processing model (ACPM) of PTG. This model is based on the

103 assumption that the relationship between PTG and post-traumatic stress is a function of the

104 intensity of the stress experienced. More specifically, that there is there is a curvilinear

105 ADVERSITY AND GROWTH IN OLYMPIC SWIMMING CHAMPIONS

5 relationship between these concepts, whereby PTG occurs at an optimal point when there has

106 been sufficient stress to challenge fundamental assumptions, yet not so much stress that an

107 individual is unable to cognitively process and cope with the stress. The premise of the model is

108 that following event stimuli, various event-related cognitions lead to cognitive appraisal activity,

109 which in turn has a reciprocal relationship with an individual'

s emotional state and coping

110 strategies. This ongoing process is influenced by the social-environmental context and by levels

111 of personality. Central processes in the model involve an individual maintaining ( assimilation )

112 or modifying ( accommodation ) their pre-traumatic assumptions. Critical to posttraumatic

113 growth is the process of positive accommodation during which an individual changes his or her

114 schema to realize congruence with the new trauma-related information and the expression of an

115 intrinsic drive towards psychological well-being. Despite these theoretical advances, the growth-

116 related literature has been critiqued for overemphasizing cognitive and affective characteristics

117 rather than evidence of change demonstrated through action (cf. Hobfoll et al., 2007;

Westphal &

118 Bonanno, 2007). Only when the search for and the subsequent presence of meaning are

119 translated into action can a more complete experience of growth be realized.