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tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=batc20 Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry ISSN: 1040-8347 (Print) 1547-6510 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/batc20 Disaccharides Determination: A Review of Analytical Methods Marta Pokrzywnicka &

Robert Koncki To cite this article: Marta Pokrzywnicka &

Robert Koncki (2018) Disaccharides Determination: A Review of Analytical Methods, Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 48:3, 186-213, DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2017.1391683 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2017.1391683 Accepted author version posted online:

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1 View citing articles Disaccharides Determination: A Review of Analytical Methods Marta Pokrzywnicka and Robert Koncki Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland ABSTRACT Disaccharides are determined mainly for dietetic purposes, hence the most analyses are carried out for food and drink samples. Its content can also be used to pro?le groceries in order to identify the origin and quality of the products. They also can be an indicator of the rate of metabolism as well as for the control of some technological and biotechnological processes. Unfortunately most of technological analysis are performed with nonselective polarimetry methods. Sugars due to speci?c physicochemical properties of compounds are dif?cult to determine with classical analytical techniques. The most common disaccharides are composed of several types of monomers connected by a different con?guration of the glycosidic bond, therefore, there are subject of the same characteristic reactions. This often enforces the need for pre-separation of sample components. Therefore, nowadays the most popular analytical methodologies for disaccharides determination are based on chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques. An alternative is enzymes application that allow both selective recognition of target analyte and its conversion to easy detected product, allowing detection by relatively simple conventional analytical methods. Another approach is the use of advanced chemometric methodologies for computing of data obtained from some spectroscopic techniques. This article is a review of the recent analytical literature devoted to non-selective and selective methods for disaccharide determination in real samples. KEYWORDS Chromatography;

Disaccharides;

Electrophoresis;

Enzymatic methods;

Spectroscopy 1. Introduction From a huge group of sugars, disaccharides are the most popu- lar analytes especially in food industry and agriculture. Among them the most popular are sucrose, maltose and lactose (Fig. 1), which were the main analytes reported in 85% of publi- cations cited in this review. It is no surprise that the most often analysed disaccharide is sucrose (68%). In the 19th century the table sugar became strategic resource with special dotation for production and quality control improvement. For many years it was recognized as the best source of energy, nowadays it is a dietician'

s nightmare. WHO considers it as one of the majority source of obesity and dental caries and strongly recommend reduction of intake.[1] Therefore sucrose is most often deter- mined in food products, especially soft drinks[2C14] and sweets.[13C17] Because of its plant origin, sucrose is also deter- mined in fruits and vegetables[17C26] (with particular emphasis on sugar cane[27] and sugar beet[28C31] ) and other plant mate- rial,[32C38] where it is an indicator of regular plant growth.[36] There are also some examples of sucrose assays in urine[39C41] and blood plasma[40C43] with special application to blood-brain barrier permeability investigations.[43] Similar concern as target analyte share lactose (37%) and maltose (32%). Lactose, characteristic for mammals milk, is determined exactly in milk[44C50] as well as in cheeses,[51] yogurts[52] and different dairy products.[53] Considering that about 50C75% of human population (data from different sources[51,54] ) suffer from lactose intolerance, not surprising number of publications reported new methods for lactose assay. Finally, maltose occurs mostly in cereals grains. Except cereal product[55,56] and starch hydrolates[57,58] it is often determined in alcoholic drinks[59] especially in beer[60C63] where together with glucose it is a marker of progress of fermentation process as well as a marker of quality of ?nal product. Of course not only these three disaccharides are targets of analytical interest. There are also reported several methods for determination of trehalose,[34,64C68] lactulose,[69C73] isomaltose,[56,74] cellobi- ose,[68,75C78] xylobiose,[75,79] mellibiose[78,80] and more. Selective methods of disaccharides determination involve many analytical challenges. Most of known disaccharides are iso- mers, with the same molecular formula, molecular weight and almost the same functional group. Only small structural changes such as the inversion of groups at a single chiral carbon atom or a change in the position of the carbonyl group, decide about differ- ent sweetness, solubility, and chemical reactivity. This diversity is clear even for monosaccharides, for example when simple mono- saccharides like glucose, galactose and fructose are compared. In case of disaccharides it becomes more complicated. Disaccharides are compounds with acetal bond between anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide molecule and any hydroxyl group of second monosaccharide, so more isomer variations appear. In Figure